JOURNAL DESCRIPTION
The Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety journal ISSN 1024-6177 was founded in January 1956 (before December 30, 1993 it was entitled Medical Radiology, ISSN 0025-8334). In 2018, the journal received Online ISSN: 2618-9615 and was registered as an electronic online publication in Roskomnadzor on March 29, 2018. It publishes original research articles which cover questions of radiobiology, radiation medicine, radiation safety, radiation therapy, nuclear medicine and scientific reviews. In general the journal has more than 30 headings and it is of interest for specialists working in thefields of medicine¸ radiation biology, epidemiology, medical physics and technology. Since July 01, 2008 the journal has been published by State Research Center - Burnasyan Federal Medical Biophysical Center of Federal Medical Biological Agency. The founder from 1956 to the present time is the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, and from 2008 to the present time is the Federal Medical Biological Agency.
Members of the editorial board are scientists specializing in the field of radiation biology and medicine, radiation protection, radiation epidemiology, radiation oncology, radiation diagnostics and therapy, nuclear medicine and medical physics. The editorial board consists of academicians (members of the Russian Academy of Science (RAS)), the full member of Academy of Medical Sciences of the Republic of Armenia, corresponding members of the RAS, Doctors of Medicine, professor, candidates and doctors of biological, physical mathematics and engineering sciences. The editorial board is constantly replenished by experts who work in the CIS and foreign countries.
Six issues of the journal are published per year, the volume is 13.5 conventional printed sheets, 88 printer’s sheets, 1.000 copies. The journal has an identical full-text electronic version, which, simultaneously with the printed version and color drawings, is posted on the sites of the Scientific Electronic Library (SEL) and the journal's website. The journal is distributed through the Rospechat Agency under the contract № 7407 of June 16, 2006, through individual buyers and commercial structures. The publication of articles is free.
The journal is included in the List of Russian Reviewed Scientific Journals of the Higher Attestation Commission. Since 2008 the journal has been available on the Internet and indexed in the RISC database which is placed on Web of Science. Since February 2nd, 2018, the journal "Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety" has been indexed in the SCOPUS abstract and citation database.
Brief electronic versions of the Journal have been publicly available since 2005 on the website of the Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety Journal: http://www.medradiol.ru. Since 2011, all issues of the journal as a whole are publicly available, and since 2016 - full-text versions of scientific articles. Since 2005, subscribers can purchase full versions of other articles of any issue only through the National Electronic Library. The editor of the Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety Journal in accordance with the National Electronic Library agreement has been providing the Library with all its production since 2005 until now.
The main working language of the journal is Russian, an additional language is English, which is used to write titles of articles, information about authors, annotations, key words, a list of literature.
Since 2017 the journal Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety has switched to digital identification of publications, assigning to each article the identifier of the digital object (DOI), which greatly accelerated the search for the location of the article on the Internet. In future it is planned to publish the English-language version of the journal Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety for its development. In order to obtain information about the publication activity of the journal in March 2015, a counter of readers' references to the materials posted on the site from 2005 to the present which is placed on the journal's website. During 2015 - 2016 years on average there were no more than 100-170 handlings per day. Publication of a number of articles, as well as electronic versions of profile monographs and collections in the public domain, dramatically increased the number of handlings to the journal's website to 500 - 800 per day, and the total number of visits to the site at the end of 2017 was more than 230.000.
The two-year impact factor of RISC, according to data for 2017, was 0.439, taking into account citation from all sources - 0.570, and the five-year impact factor of RISC - 0.352.
Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety. 2024. Vol. 69. № 1
DOI:10.33266/1024-6177-2024-69-1-50-60
I.V. Ivanov1, 2, V.I. Burmistrov1, E.I. Matkevich3
Assessment of the Radiation Situation during Short-Term Flights to the Moon
1 N.F. Izmerov Research Institute of Occupational Health, Moscow, Russia
2 I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
3 A.I. Burnazyan Federal Medical Biophysical Center, Moscow, Russia
Contact person: I.V. Ivanov, e-mail: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
ABSTRACT
Background: The issue of assessing the features of factors affecting the formation of radiation doses of astronauts while in orbit of the Moon and on its surface remains insufficiently studied, which is important for ensuring the anti-radiation safety of astronauts on lunar missions.
Purpose: To analyze the factors influencing the formation of the radiation dose of astronauts at the stage of finding the spacecraft in orbit of the Moon and the lander on its surface.
Material and methods: The features of the dose load levels on astronauts at the stages of the Moon’s orbit and on the Moon’s surface are analyzed and generalized, calculation methods are used taking into account the orbit of the spacecraft around the Moon, the anti-radiation properties of the materials of the lander and spacesuit and the time spent in them during a short-term lunar mission.
Results: The total radiation doses of astronauts for 14 days, calculated according to dosimetric measurements during the years of low solar activity (2009 and 2018‒2019), are 19.5‒23.2 mSv for astronauts staying in a spacecraft in lunar orbit, and from 22,7 to 24,0 mSv for astronauts on the Lunar surface, depending on the mass thickness of the protection at the maximum permissible 250 mSv for 1 month. An increase in the mass thickness of the anti-radiation protection of the lander in the equivalent of aluminum from 1.5 to 3-5 g/cm2 and the lunar spacesuit in the equivalent of aluminum from 0.2 to 0.5‒1 g/cm2 will reduce the total radiation dose of astronauts no more than 1.3 times during a 14-day stay on the surface of the moon. The results indicate that in order to minimize the radiation doses that astronauts receive during a lunar mission, it is important to take into account the forecast of solar activity in order to optimize the launch time of the spacecraft in the «windows» with minimal levels of radiation exposure.
Conclusion: When predicting radiation hazard levels for astronauts during a short-term lunar mission, it is necessary to assess the levels of exposure to cosmic ionizing radiation both in the orbit of the Moon, depending on the lunar trajectory of the spacecraft, and on the surface of the Moon, taking into account the time spent in the lunar module and in a spacesuit, as well as levels of solar activity. It is important to take into account the analyzed features of the formation of cosmonauts’ radiation doses while orbiting the Moon and on its surface when predicting the time limits of the lunar mission, anti-radiation protection of astronauts and their compliance with the regulatory limits of exposure.
Keywords: space flights, the moon, astronauts, ionizing radiation, radiation doses, anti-radiation protection, lunar module, spacesuit
For citation: Ivanov IV, Burmistrov VI, Matkevich EI. Assessment of the Radiation Situation during Short-Term Flights to the Moon. Medical Radiology and Radiation Safety. 2024;69(1):50–60. (In Russian). DOI:10.33266/1024-6177-2024-69-1-50-60
References
1. Grigoryev Yu.G., Ushakov I.B., Shafirkin A.V. Peculiarities of Radiation Normalization in the USSR (Russia) and the USA Concerning to Long-Term Pilotable Space Flights. Gigiyena i Sanitariya = Hygiene and Sanitation. 2017;96;9:861-867. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18821/0016-9900-2017-96-9-861-867 (In Russ.).
2. Samoylov A.S., Ushakov I.B, Shurshakov V.A. Radiation Exposure During the Orbital and Interplanetary Spaceflights: Monitoring and Protection. Ekologiya Cheloveka = Human Ecology. 2019;1:4-9 (In Russ.).
3. Mitrikas V.G., Khorosheva E.G. Effective Doses from Ionizing Radiation Exposure of Cosmonauts During Extravehicular Activity. Aviakosmicheskaya i Ekologicheskaya Meditsina = Aerospace and Environmental Medicine. 2018;52;2:29–33. DOI 10.21687/0233-528X-2018-52-2-29-33 (In Russ.).
4. Shafirkin A.V., Bengin V.V., Bondarenko V.A., Mitrikas V.G., Panasyuk M.I., Tsetlin V.V., Shurshakov V.A. Dose Loads and Total Radiation Risk for Cosmonauts in Long-Term Missions to the Orbital Station Mir and International Space Station. Aviakosmicheskaya i Ekologicheskaya Meditsina = Aerospace and Environmental Medicine. 2018;52;1:12–23. DOI 10.21687/0233-528X-2018-52-1-12-23 (In Russ.).
5. Bondarenko V.A., Mitrikas V.G., Tsetlin V.V. Characteristics of the Iss Radiation Environment in the Period of the 24th Solar Cycle. Aviakosmicheskaya i Ekologicheskaya Meditsina = Aerospace and Environmental Medicine. 2019;53;5:17–21. DOI 10.21687/0233-528X-2019-53-5-17-21 (In Russ.).
6. Mitrikas V.G. Some Aspects of the Radiation Exposure of Cosmonauts Traversing the Earth’s Magnetosphere. Aviakosmicheskaya i Ekologicheskaya Meditsina = Aerospace and Environmental Medicine. 2021;55;3:51–56. DOI 10.21687/0233-528X-2021-55-3-51-56 (In Russ.).
7. Mitrikas V.G., Khorosheva E.G. Effective Doses from Ionizing Radiation Exposure of Cosmonauts During Extravehicular Activity. Aviakosmicheskaya i Ekologicheskaya Meditsina = Aerospace and Environmental Medicine. 2016;50;3:23–29 (In Russ.).
8. Mitrikas V.G. Estimation of Ionizing Radiation Effective Doses to Crews of the International Space Station by the Method of Calculation Modeling. Aviakosmicheskaya i Ekologicheskaya Meditsina = Aerospace and Environmental Medicine. 2015;49;3:5–11 (In Russ.).
9. Mitrikas V.G. Dinamicheskaya Model Radiatsionnoy obstanovki dlya Operativnogo Obespecheniya Radiatsionnoy Bezopasnosti Kosmonavtov v Kosmicheskom Polete = A Dynamic Model of the Radiation Situation for Operational Provision of Radiation Safety of Astronauts in Space Flight. Avtoref. diss. ... doct. Technical Sciences. Moscow Publ., 2000. 36 p. (In Russ.).
10. Bondarenko V.A. Otsenka Radiatsionnykh Nagruzok na Kosmonavtov Mks s Ispolzovaniyem Geometricheskoy Modeli Tela Cheloveka = Assessment of Radiation Loads on the ISS Astronauts Using a Geometric Model of the Human Body. Avtoref. diss. ... kand. of Technical Sciences. Moscow Publ., 2007. 27 p. (In Russ.).
11. Orlov O.I., Panasyuk M.I., Shurshakov V.A. Radiation Factor in Lunar Missions. Aviakosmicheskaya i Ekologicheskaya Meditsina = Aerospace and Environmental Medicine. 2019;53;4:5–18 (In Russ.).
12. STATE STANDARD 15484-81 Ionizing Radiations and Their Measurements. Terms and definitions. Moscow Publ., 1986 (In Russ.).
13. SP 2.6.1.2612-10. Basic Sanitary Rules for Radiation Safety (OSPORB-99/2010). Moscow Publ., 2010 (In Russ.).
14. Spence H.E., Golightly M.J., Joyce C.J., Looper M.D., Schwadron N.A., Smith S.S., Townsend L.W., Wilson J. and Zeitlin C. Relative Contributions of Galactic Cosmic Rays and Lunar Proton «Albedo» to Dose and Dose Rates Near the Moon. Space Weather. 2013;11:643–650. doi:10.1002/2013SW000995. URL: http://www.d54x.ru/articles/Luna/Luna91.pdf.
15. Novikov L.S. Kosmicheskoye Materialovedeniye = Space Materials Science. Moscow, Max Press Publ., 2014. 448 p.
(In Russ.).
16. Zhang S., Wimmer-Schweingruber R.F., Yu J., Wang C., Fu Q., Zou Y., Sun Y., Wang C., Hou D., Böttcher S.I., Burmeister S., Seimetz L., Schuster B., Knierim V., Shen G., Yuan B., Lohf H., Guo J., Xu Z., Freiherr von Forstner J.L., Kulkarni S.R., Xu H., Xue C., Li J., Zhang Z., Zhang H., Berger T., Matthiä D., Hellweg C.E., Hou X., Cao J., Chang Z., Zhang B., Chen Y., Geng H., Quan Z. First Measurements of the Radiation Dose on the Lunar Surface. Sci. Adv. 2020;6;39:eaaz1334. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aaz1334.
17. Bezrodnykh I.P. Kosmicheskaya Radiatsiya – Osnovnaya Ugroza pri Kosmicheskikh Poletakh = Space Radiation Is the Main Threat During Space Flights. ICI RAS. Moscow Publ., 2021. 39 p. URL: https://studylib.ru/doc/6428972/bezrodnyh-i.p.-kosmicheskaya-radiaciya‒osnovnaya-ugroza-pri
(In Russ.).
18. Wimmer-Schweingruber R.F., Yu J., Böttcher S.I., Zhang S., Burmeister S., Lohf H. at all. The Lunar Lander Neutron and Dosimetry (LND) Experiment on Chang’E 4. Space Sci. 2020;216;104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00725-3.
19. Kalmykov N.N., Kulikov G.V., Roganova T.M. Galactic Cosmic Rays. V. 1. Model Kosmosa = A Model of the Cosmos. Ed. Panasyuk M.I. Moscow Publ., 2007. P. 62-95 (In Russ.).
20. Belov A.V., Kurt V.G. Solar Cosmic Rays. V. 1. Model Kosmosa = A Model of the Cosmos. Ed. Panasyuk M.I. Moscow Publ., 2007. P. 293-313 (In Russ.).
21. Ionizing Radiation in Earth’s Atmosphere and in Space Near Earth. Wallace Friedberg Kyle Copeland Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Federal Aviation Administration. Oklahoma City, OK 73125. P. 1-32.
22. Denisov A.N., Kuznetsov N.V., Nymmik R.A., Panasyuk M.I., Sobolevskiy N.M. On the Problem of the Radiation Situation on the Moon. Kosmicheskiye Issledovaniya = Cosmic Research. 2010;48;6:524-531 (In Russ.).
23. Bezrodnykh I.P., Morozova E.I., Petrukovich A.A., Semenov V.T. Evaluation of Optimal Parameters of Screens for Protecting Electronic Systems of Spacecraft from Ionizing Radiation. Voprosy Elektromekhaniki. Trudy VNIIEM = Electromechanical Matters. VNIIEM Studies. 2012;131;6:15-18 (In Russ.).
24. Bezrodnykh I.P. Faktory Kosmicheskogo Prostranstva, Vliyayushchiye na Issledovaniye i Osvoyeniye Luny = Factors of Outer Space Affecting the Exploration and Exploration of the Moon. Moscow Publ., 2014 // https://studylib.ru/doc/2735279/bezrodnyh-i.p.-iki-ran-spisok-normativnyh (In Russ.).
25. GOST 25645.150-90. Cosmic Galactic Rays. A Model for Changing Particle Flows. Moscow Publ., 1991 (In Russ.).
26. GOST 25645.165-2001. Cosmic Solar Rays. Probabilistic Model of Proton Fluxes. Gosstandart of Russia. Moscow Publ., 2001 (In Russ.).
27. URL: https://monamir.ru/Аполлон-8; https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Аполлон-10.
28. Jones E.M. A Running Start- Apollo 17 up to Powered Descent Initiation. Apollo 17 Lunar Surface Journal. NASA (1995); Аполлон-17 URL: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Аполлон-17.
29. Petrov V.M., Mitrikas V.G., Teltsov M.V., Akatov YU.V., Bengin V.V., Bondarenko V.A., et al. Radiation Dosimetry in Space Flight. V. 1. Model Kosmosa = A Model of the Cosmos. Ed. Panasyuk M.I. Moscow Publ., 2007. P. 642-667 (In Russ.).
30. Schwadron N.A., Baker T., Blake B., Case A.W., Cooper J.F., Golightly M., et al. Lunar Radiation Environment and Space Weathering from the Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER).
J. Geophys. Res. 2012;117:E00H13.
31. Schwadron N.A., Rahmanifard F., Wilson J., Jordan A.P., Spence H.E., Joyce C.J., et al. Update on the Worsening Particle Radiation Environment Observed by CRaTER and Implications for Future Human Deep-Space Exploration. Space Weather. 2018;16:289–303.
32. The Effect of the Varying Distance on the Effective Shielding by the Moon Is Included in the Dose Rates Published by the CRaTER Team, as Discussed on Their Website. Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER). URL: http://prediccs.sr.unh.edu/craterweb/algorithms.html.
33. Kuznetsov N.V., Nymmik R.A., Panasyuk M.I., Denisov A.N., Sobolevsky N.M. Assessment of Radiation Risk for Astronauts on the Moon. Kosmicheskiye Issledovaniya = Cosmic Research. 2012;50;3:224-228 (In Russ.).
34. Kurt V.G. Solar Flares. V. 1. Model Kosmosa = A Model of the Cosmos. Ed. Panasyuk M.I. Moscow Publ., 2007. P. 62-95.
35. Wimmer-Schweingruber R.F., Yu J., Böttcher S.I., Zhang S., Burmeister S., Lohf H., et al. Planetary Science. First Measurements of the Radiation Dose on the Lunar Surface. Sci. Adv. 2020;6:eaaz1334.
36. Limits of radiation Safety (NRS-99/2009) SP. 2.6.1.758-99. Moscow Publ., 2009 (In Russ.).
37. GOST 25645.215-85 BREKAKP. Safety Regulations for the Duration of Flights up to 3 Years. Moscow Publ., 1986 (In Russ.).
38. Limits of Cosmonauts’ Irradiation for Orbital Near-Earth Space Flights. Workbook MU 2.6.1.44-03-2004. Мoscow Publ., 2004 (In Russ.).
39. Ushakov I.B., Grigoryev Yu.G., Shafirkin A.V., Shurshakov V.A. Substantiation of Dose Limits for a New Normative Document on Radiation Safety of Long-Duration Space Missions at Orbit Altitudes of up to 500 km. Aviakosmicheskaya i Ekologicheskaya Meditsina = Aerospace and Environmental Medicine. 2016;50;1:39–54 (In Russ.).
40. Publication 103 of the International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP). Ed. Kiselev M.F., Shandala N.K. Moscow Publ., 2009 (In Russ.).
PDF (RUS) Full-text article (in Russian)
Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Financing. The study had no sponsorship.
Contribution. Article was prepared with equal participation of the authors.
Article received: 20.10.2023. Accepted for publication: 27.11.2023.